Biological and Clinical Sciences Research Journal
ISSN: 2708-2261
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47264/bcsrj0201005
Biol. Clin.
Sci. Res. J., Volume, 2021: e005
Original Research Article
PERCEPTION REGARDING SELF-MEDICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS
IN GENERAL PUBLIC SECTOR UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN PUNJAB: A COMPARISON BETWEEN
MEDICAL AND NON-MEDICAL STUDENTS
KHALID S, ALI Q, *HAFEEZ MM, MALIK A
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
Corresponding author email: mansoorhafeez140@gmail.com
Abstract: Self-medication with antibiotics is a most rapidly emerging
problem especially in developing countries like Pakistan. Antibiotics are
easily accessible to the general public without consulting any practitioner
even without prescriptions. So there are many risks linked to the inappropriate
use of antibiotics. The main aim of this study was to assess the wrong practice
of self-medication in public sector universities of southern Punjab. The
current study also compares the self-medication practices in various
departments of universities. A validated questionnaire was used to collect
data. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data and inferential
statistics (chi-square test). The study was included data from 900 students
including both males and females from various departments. Among 900 students,
450 students of medical while 450 were non-medical students. Frequency of
self-medication was found to 57 %. The antibiotics more frequently use for
self-medication were Augmentin (37 %), Amoxicillin (23 %). Fever and cough were
the most frequent indication for the use of self-medicated antibiotics. Because
of their sufficient knowledge of pharmacology, most students were self-medicated
(40%). Academic knowledge is the principal source of antibiotic information
(60%). Just (39%) of the students thought that self-medication is part of the
self-core, 31% of the students perceived that the availability of
non-prescription drugs could prevent the growing trend of self-medication with
antibiotics. 30% of students perceived that antibiotics were aware of the harms
of self-medication or informed about them. Based on this study, it can be
concluded that a high proportion of medical students and non-medical students
use antibiotics without medical prescription and such practices are more common
in the general public sector.
Keywords: self-medication,
antibiotics, pharmacology, drugs, Augmentin, Amoxicillin
Introduction
Several
problems such as antimicrobial resistance, are caused
by excessive and unfair use of antibiotics is one of the major concerns
worldwide. This inappropriate use of antibiotics resulting in
bacterial resistance. Bacterial resistance endorsing
more financial burden because of multiple expensive antibiotics use.
Because of expensive treatment for resistant bacteria low-class population is
unable to afford hence many precious lives are being lost (Smith et al., 2001). In different countries,
antibiotic consumption varies: higher rates are observed in South European
countries and lower rates are observed in Northern European countries (Goossens et al., 2005). Reported data from research
indicates that up to 50% of hospital antibiotic usage is excessive (Davey et al., 2006). However, the main antibiotic
load comes from the primary health care stage. Research from different countries
shows that 75-94% of all antibiotics are directly used by ambulatory patients (Picazo et al., 2003). There is a strong inclination
for overuse of antibiotics due to their extensive use in the treatment of viral
and self-limiting bacterial diseases. The favoured
use of broad-spectrum antibiotics is often baseless (Bronzwaer, 2002; Johnston, 1998; Lipsitch and Samore, 2002). Self-medication
with antibiotics is among the means of their irrational use. As a basic medicine,
people use antimicrobials, usually self-prescribed, for various kinds of
infections. Soon, such unchecked use of antibiotics could lead to a
'pre-antibiotic era' until the discovery of penicillin, not just in humans but
also in animals, when many disease infections would be almost impossible to
treat again because of antimicrobial resistance (Okumura et al., 2002; Samaranayake and Johnson, 1999). Each country has its
antimicrobial drug use policies and regulations, but its implementation is not
always effective. Following numerous evidence-based advice and newly gained
expertise or facts, this situation should improve.
For
instance, in France, one of the leading countries in outpatient antibiotic use,
more than half of the population expects an antibiotics prescription for the
common cold (Harbarth et al., 2002). In developing countries such as
Pakistan, this issue is in its worse form due to the poor economic condition of
its inhabitants. Other developing countries are Trinidad and Tobago, where
issues with self-medication have been reported.
.(Awad et al., 2005; Parimi et al., 2004). However, developed countries
are also effected from this problem and many studied have reported problem
because of it in countries such as the USA, Spain, Russia, Greece and Israel (Grigoryan et al., 2006; Guillemot et al., 1998). Several
antibiotics work to remove the symptoms of his disease from the point of view
of the self-medication user, but it is scientifically understood that if he
takes large doses, he is responsible for side effects and the pathogen will
become resistant to the body of the patient and more pathogenic (Guillemot et al., 1998; Okeke et al., 2005; WHO, 2001). In order to
safely and efficiently alleviate symptoms without medical consultation, WHO
supports self-medication activities and to reduce the burden on health care
facilities that are often understaffed and ineffective in rural and remote
areas (Gonzales et al., 2001; WHO, 2001). The pattern of
antibiotic use is based on public perceptions and information, particularly
whether optimal doses are given and/or whether complete courses of therapy are
taken (Laxminarayan et al., 2013; Van Boeckel et al., 2014). It was difficult for patients
to understand the value of antibiotic doses or the patient age, the theory of
resistance and the implications of such malpractice. Public knowledge of
antibiotics is of particular significance in developing countries like
Pakistan, where antibiotics are available without a prescription. When it comes
to administering antibiotics to rationalise the usage
and strengthen tolerance, research on people who know the antibiotic is
important (Holmes et al., 2016; Silbergeld et al., 2008).
Methodology
Area and
Location
The
study area was a public sector the University of South Punjab, Khawaja Fareed University of Rahim Yar Khan. Raheem Yar Khan is located in the
south-east of Punjab province, is about 700kmfrom Karachi with a population of
3434108 of which 30.6% were urban. The Khawaja Fareed University is a public sector university, which has
more than Departments, Disciplines, Facilities and Centers.
Objectives
Objective
may be general and specific. Self-medication assessment by students from the
public-sector university of Southern Punjab. To compare self-medication among university student studying in
various departments.
Study Design
A
cross-sectional study design was adopted to conduct this study.
Study Population
The
target population was taken from university students who came to this
university from different cities. Currently enrolled students were invited to
participate in the study.
Sampling Method
A
semi structured questionnaire developed and pilot tested by the principle
investigator was used as sample.
Sampling
Procedure
I.
Inclusion Criteria
Inclusion
criteria for the respondent of the study were as follows:
i. Students enrolled in Khawaja Fareed University, Rahim Yar khan (Medical, Law, CS,
BBA, Commerce department).
ii.
Students willing to participants in the study.
II.
Exclusion Criteria
Exclusion
criteria for the respondents of the study were as follows:
•
Students who had already completed their education were not invited to
participate in the study.
•
Students who were not willing to participate in the study.
Data Collection
Tool
The
information was collected through a self-administered questionnaire (tool). The
questionnaire comprises four parts that include both Closed, Open Complete
Problems. A first phase involved included demographic variables, such as ages,
genders, and subject fields which have concerns about the policies and
expertise of using antibiotics and on evidence, not just in violation. The
second part comprised of a whole chain of land the nine questions related to
the reason for self-medication, condition for self-medication, commonly
self-medicated antibiotics e.tc
The
third section contains three questions related to self-medication part of
self-care, continues the self-medication with antibiotic and advises self-medication
to your friends.
The
last question had one question inquiring method about prevention of
self-medication of antibiotics.
Reliability
(internal consistency) testing of tool
A
pilot study was conducted and Cronbach’s Alpha test
conducted to evaluate the internal consistency of questionnaire, and alpha
value was 0.65 (n=19).
Validity Testing
(face and control testing)
Experts
evaluated the data collection tool for its face and content validity.
Data Analysis
Using
SPSS versions 15.0, and descriptive statistics all the data were analyzed
(frequencies percentages, mean, median, standard derivation and IQR) were
conducted to summarize data and Chi-square test was applied as inferential
statistics. A P value than 0.05 was considered as statistical
significance.
Results
Descriptive
Analysis
Table 1 Section a (part 1) Demographic
data of Gender, Age and Field of study of students
Variables
|
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Gender
|
Male
|
402 |
44.7 |
Female
|
498 |
55.3 |
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100
|
Age
|
|
(Mean) |
(SD) |
20.7 |
12.2 |
||
Field
of study |
Medical
|
450 |
50 |
Non-medical
|
450 |
50 |
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100
|
Demographic
data was analyzed through descriptive statistics. Frequencies and percentages
of variable were analyzed from which mean and standard deviation of variables obtained.
The majority of the students (498) were female’s. The students were from
variety of disciplines participated in the study. Age of the students was also
recorded the most significance age group was (20-21) years. About 50%
respondents were from medical discipline and 50% from Non-medical disciplines
(Table 1).
Table 2 Section A
(part 2) knowledge of student about self-medication
Questions |
Response |
Frequency |
Percentage
|
Do
you know what is Antibiotic? |
Yes
|
866 |
96.2 |
No
|
34 |
3.8
|
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100
|
Antibiotic
use without consultation of doctor. |
Yes
|
500 |
55.6 |
No
|
400 |
44.4
|
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100 |
Knowledge
was also analyzed through descriptive statistics. 96.2% students were aware of
antibiotics and 3.8% were not known. Similarly, from analysis it was also known
that 55.6% students use antibiotic without doctor consultation and 44.4%
students do not use antibiotic without doctor consultation (Table 2).
Inferential
Analysis
Inferential
Analysis was done with the help of Pearson’s Chi-squared test and obtained P
values (Table 3).
Table 3 Section A
(Part 1): knowledge of students about antibiotic with respect to gender
Questions |
Response |
Male
No% |
Female
No% |
P
value |
Do
you know, what is antibiotic? |
Yes
|
388(96.5) |
478(96.0) |
.768 |
No
|
14(3.5)
|
20(4.0) |
||
Do
you use antibiotic without doctor consultation. |
Yes
|
224(55.7) |
276(55.4) |
.513 |
No
|
178(44.3) |
222(44.6) |
Table 4 Selection A
(Part 2): knowledge of students about antibiotic with respect to medical and
non-medical students
Questions |
Response
|
Medical
No% |
Non-medical
No% |
P
value |
Do
you know what is antibiotics? |
Yes
|
448(99.6) |
418(92.9) |
<0.001 |
No
|
2(0.4) |
32(7.1) |
||
Do
you use antibiotic without doctor consultation? |
Yes
|
256(56.9) |
244(54.2) |
.318 |
No
|
182(43.1) |
206(45.8) |
It
is found that more medical field students (99.6%) had knowledge about
antibiotics than non-medical students (92.9%) and there was significant
difference (<0.001) between them (Table 4).
Table 5 Section A
(Part 3): Reason for not practicing the self-medication of antibiotics
Question |
Response
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
What
is the reason for not practicing the self-medication of antibiotics? |
Wrong
drug |
316 |
35.1 |
ADR’s |
242 |
26.9 |
|
Wrong
diagnosis Others |
188
154 |
20.9 17.1 |
|
Total
|
900 |
100 |
Through
descriptive statistics, it was analyzed that 35.1% students were not practicing
self-medication because of perception of wrong drug use, 26.9% due to expected
adverse drug reaction, 20.9% due to susceptibility of wrong diagnosis and 17.1%
due to other reasons (Table 5).
Descriptive
Analysis
Table 6 Section B (Part 1): Practice of
self-medication of antibiotics
Questions
|
Response
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Do
you know the active ingredient of antibiotic that you self-medicate? |
Yes
|
520 |
57.8 |
No
|
380 |
42.2 |
|
|
Total
|
900
|
100
|
Do
you think that antibiotic can recover any type of infection? |
Yes
|
540
|
60 |
No
|
360
|
40
|
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100 |
Do
you know any idea in which disease antibiotic use? |
Yes
|
660 |
73.3 |
No
|
240
|
26.7 |
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100 |
Do
you think that self-medication with antibiotic is safe? |
Yes
|
468 |
52 |
No
|
432 |
48 |
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100 |
Have
you experience any un-expected reaction due to antibiotic use? |
Yes
|
218 |
75.8 |
No
|
782 |
100 |
|
|
Total
|
900 |
100 |
Note:
Frequencies
and percentage are based on observed values. Through descriptive statistics,
data of the practice of self-medication of antibiotics were analyzed. 57.8% of
students know the active ingredient of antibiotic, which they self-medicate,
and 42.2% do not know the active ingredients of antibiotic that they self-medicate.
60% of students believe that antibiotic can recover any type of infection
(Table 6). 52% of students think self-medication with an antibiotic is safe and
48% do not think so. 24.2% of students experienced adverse drug reaction and
75.8% remained unaware of the adverse drug reaction or did not experience.
Table 7 Section B (part 2): practice of
self-medication of antibiotics
Questions
|
Response
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
What
is the reason for self-medication of antibiotic? |
Illness
of trivial |
52 |
20.7 |
Pharma knowledge |
104 |
41.4 |
|
Save
time |
62 |
24.7 |
|
High
fee |
26 |
10.4 |
|
Privacy
|
7 |
2.8 |
|
Total
|
450 |
100 |
|
What
is the source of information about antibiotic? |
Old
prescription |
57 |
22.8 |
Drug
advertise |
35 |
14 |
|
Academic knowledge |
135 |
54 |
|
Friends
|
22 |
8.8 |
|
Total
|
450 |
100 |
|
Which
antibiotic you use for self-medication? |
Amoxicillin
Ciprofloxacin
|
55 33 |
22 13.2 |
Erythromycin
|
28 |
11.2 |
|
Augmentin |
93 |
37.2 |
|
Others
|
38 |
15.2 |
|
Total
|
450 |
100 |
|
In
which condition do you use self-medication of antibiotic? |
Fever
|
54 |
20.9 |
Cough
|
63 |
24.4 |
|
Cold
|
35 |
13.6 |
|
Malaria
|
5 |
1.9 |
|
All
|
100 |
38.1 |
|
Total
|
450 |
100 |
The
students were provided with possible options for the reason of use of
self-medication of antibiotics. 41.4% students use to purchase self-selected
antibiotics due to their pharma knowledge, 24.7% to
save their time, 20.7% due to illness of trivial, 10.4% due to high consultant
fee, 2.8% for keeping privacy. Students were provided with possible option for
the source of information about antibiotic 54% students use academic knowledge,
22.8% use old prescriptions 14% use drug advertisement 8.8% seek information
from their friends (Table 7). The students were asked to pick antibiotic from
most commonly used antibiotics about 37.2% used Augmentin,
22% Amoxicillin, 13.2% Ciprofloxacin, 11.2% Erythromycin and the remaining
15.2% use others. 24.4% students use in cough, 20.9% in fever, 13.6% in cold,
1.9% in malaria and 38.1% use antibiotics in all given conditions.
Table 8 Section B (part 2): practice of
self-medication of antibiotics with respect to gender
Questions
|
Response
|
Male
No% |
Female
No% |
P
value |
What
is the reason for self-medication of antibiotic? |
Illness
of trivial |
22(19.0) |
30(22.2) |
.046 |
Pharmacological
knowledge |
41(35.3) |
63(46.7) |
||
To
save time |
30(25.9) |
32(23.7) |
||
High
consultant fee |
18(15.5) |
8(5.9) |
||
Privacy
|
5(4.3) |
2(1.5) |
||
What
is the source of information about antibiotic? |
Old
prescription |
25(21.7) |
32(23.7) |
.708 |
Drug
advertise |
18(15.7) |
17(12.6) |
||
Academic
knowledge |
60(52.2) |
75(55.6) |
||
Friends
|
12(10.4) |
10(7.4) |
||
Commonly
used antibiotic for self-medication |
Amoxicillin
|
29(25.0) |
26(19.3) |
.090 |
Ciprofloxacin |
10(8.6) |
23(17.0) |
||
Erythromycin |
15(12.9) |
13(9.6) |
||
Augmentin |
38(32.8) |
56(41.5) |
||
Others |
23(19.8) |
15(11.1) |
||
Common
condition in which you use self-medication of antibiotic |
Fever
|
23(19.3) |
31(22.3) |
.461 |
Cough
|
27(22.7) |
36(25.9) |
||
Cold
|
19(16.0) |
16(11.5) |
||
Malaria
|
4(3.4) |
1(.7) |
||
|
All
of these |
46(38.7) |
54(38.8) |
|
Note:
Frequencies and percentage are based on observed values P-value for the
Chi-square test.
Results
show that most female students are practicing self-medication because of
sufficient pharmacological knowledge 63(43.7%) and male students are practicing
self-medication because of to save time 30(25.9%) (Table 8) so there is a
significant difference (0.046) and explanation for self-medication between the
activities of antibiotics
Descriptive
analysis
Table 9 Section
C: Behavior of the student toward the self-medication of antibiotics
Questions |
Response
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Do
you think that self-medication is a part of self-care? |
Yes
|
171 |
38 |
No
|
150 |
33.3
|
|
Total
|
450
|
100
|
|
Do
you think you should continue with or start self-medication of antibiotic? |
Yes
|
97 |
21.6 |
No
|
220 |
48.0 |
|
Total
|
450
|
100
|
|
Do
you advise self-medication of antibiotic to your friends? |
Yes
|
96
|
21.3
|
No
|
319 |
70.9
|
|
Total
|
450 |
100
|
Note:
frequencies and percentage are based on observed values
38%
of students show a positive attitude towards self-medication and 33% do not
think that self-medication is part of self-care. 21.6% think that they should
continue with self-medication of antibiotics and 48% think do not continue with
self-medication of antibiotic (Table 9). 21.3% of students usually advise the
self-medication of antibiotics to their friends and 70.9% do not advise.
Table 10 Section
C: Attitude of the students toward the self-medication of Antibiotics with
respect to gender
Questions
|
Response
|
Male
No% |
Female
No% |
P
value |
Do
you think that self-medication is a part of self-care? |
Yes
|
81(40.3) |
90(36.1) |
0.164 |
No
|
69(34.3) |
81(32.5) |
||
Not
sure |
51(25.4) |
78(31.3) |
||
Do
you think should continue or start with self-medication of antibiotic? |
Yes
|
45(24.4) |
52(20.9) |
.180 |
No
|
93(46.3) |
127(51.0) |
||
Not
sure |
63(31.3) |
70(28.1) |
||
Do
you advise self-medication of antibiotic to your friends? |
Yes
|
53(26.4) |
43(17.3) |
0.019 |
No
|
129(64.2) |
190(76.3) |
||
Not
sure |
19(9.5) |
16(6.4) |
Note:
Frequencies and percentage are based on observed values P value for Chi square
test (Table 10).
Table 11 Section
D: perception of students regarding method to prevent self-medication of
antibiotics
Questions
|
Response
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
What
should be the method to prevent the growing trends of self-medication? |
Prevents
the availability of medicine without prescription |
145 |
32.2 |
Usage
and instruction in the harms of the
self-medication |
176 |
39.1 |
|
Compliance
of stringent regulations on inappropriate pharmaceutical promotion |
38 |
8.4 |
|
Working
toward making healthcare facilities easily available |
51 |
11.3 |
|
No
opinion |
40 |
8.9 |
The
students were asked possible options regarding the method to prevent the
growing trend of self-medication. 39.1% students agreed with awareness or
education regarding harms of self-medication, 32.2% students agreed to prevent
the availability of medicine without a prescription (Table 11), 11.3% agreed
with working toward making healthcare facilities easily available, 8.4% agreed
with enforcing the strict rule regarding misleading pharmaceutical promotion
and 8.9% have no opinion about this.
Table 12 section
D: Students understanding of the technique for preventing self-medication of
antibiotics with respect to gender
Question
|
Response
|
Male
No% |
Female
No% |
P
value |
|
||
Method
to discourage the increasing trend of self-medication |
Prevent
the supply of medication without prescription |
57(28.4) |
88(35.3) |
0.001 |
|||
Awareness
or education regarding harms of self-medication |
69(34.3) |
107(43.0) |
|||||
Enforcing
the strict rule regarding misleading pharmaceutical promotion |
21(10.4) |
17(6.8) |
|||||
Make
health-care facilities easily available |
25(12.4) |
26(10.4) |
|||||
No
opinion |
29(14.4) |
11(4.4) |
|||||
Note:
Frequencies and percentage are based on observed values P-value for Chi-square
test
Study
shows that most pharmacy students are practicing self-medication because of
sufficient pharmacological knowledge 76(55.1%) and non-pharmacy students are
practicing self-medication because of to save time 33(29%) so there is a
significant difference (<0.001) between the reasons for practicing
self-medication of antibiotics (Table 12). More female students have the
perception that growing trend of self-medication of antibiotics can be
prevented by awareness or education regarding harms of self-medication
107(43.05) and male students have the perception that it can be controlled by
preventing the supply of medication without prescription 57(28.4%).
Discussion
Our
results are confirming the expectations are strong with antibiotics by our
public sector the University of Southern Punjab with considerable resources, self-assignments of antibiotics are practicable
(they are legally available over the counter). Antibiotics primarily given by
physicians will be preserved in the absence of medicinal consultation and added
to the medicines later. With their equivalents, they are simpler antibiotics
that can be obtained over the Internet. Many people know about antibiotic and
they use antibiotic without doctor consultation. This study has been carried
out to analyze the understanding, approach, and actions of medical and
non-medical learners of the State sector residency. The prevalence of
self-medication is worrying about incipient youth education in Pakistan. It is
in contradiction with the male students that female students engaged in
self-medication rather than male. This study emphasized in research, similar
results were made (Grigoryan et al., 2006; Holmes et al., 2016; Richman et al., 2001). In this
research, self-medication frequencies among university studies that are both
medical and non-medical very high; similar findings can be assessed between the
studies on research carried out with university students of Karachi with the
individual drug data made to the analysis they conducted in India, comparable
with what was found in Tamil Nadu in Spain (Al-Azzam et al., 2007; Grigoryan et al., 2007). According to our study, most of
the pharmacy students know the active ingredient of antibiotic that they
self-medicate. In the present study, Augmentin and
Amoxicillin are most commonly self-medicated antibiotics. Another study was
performed in Jordan and Sweden showed that Amoxicillin was the most in use
antibiotic for self-medication (Morgan et al., 2011; Stratchounski et al., 2003). According to this study, half
of the respondents think that the self-medication of antibiotic is safe and
most of the respondents did not experience any unexpected reaction due to the self-medication
of the antibiotics. The most participants involved in our study reported that
they think any antibiotic can recover any type of infection. A research
performed in Yogyakarta city Indonesia showed that only a few participants
believe that antibiotics can cure any disease (Al-Azzam et al., 2007; Davey et al., 2006). As the students of this study
have reported, Cough has been the primary source of treatment with antibiotics.
An in-India trial study identified that throat loss is a main indicator of antibiotic
(Huttner et al., 2010; Laxminarayan et al., 2013). Another study performed in
Jordan population showed that the condition for which antibiotics were
self-medicated, pharyngitis was most prevalent
followed by flu (common cold) and rhinorrhea (Al-Azzam et al., 2007; Ruiz, 2010). In studies from Nigeria (Grigoryan et al., 2007; Napolitano et al., 2013). Diarrhea and gastro-intestinal
infections have been identified as the most frequent marker for use, while
Turkish or Greek have been reported as the most widespread (Laxminarayan et al., 2013). The most popular indication for
the antibiotics was a common cold. In this study, respondents thought
self-drugs were part of self-care, which is marginally lower than that recorded
trial in India (Van Boeckel et al., 2014). Most of the participants
involved in our study though that they should not continue with or start
self-medication of antibiotics while few wished to continue with or start
self-medication with antibiotics. However, study performed in India showed that
50% of the participants were wishing to continue with or start self-medication
with antibiotics (Llor and Bjerrum, 2014; Marston et al., 2016). In addition, awareness or
understanding about the illness and strict policies for stopping the
pharmaceutical drug without the treatment has emerged as the response to
preventing the increasingly increasing transition towards without prescription
medication. The comparison work in our study conducted in India showed that
pointed steps were appropriate to prevent supplies of prescribed by avoiding
rising phenomena in self prescription (Bryce et al., 2016; Exner et al., 2017). For the education of young
people, particularly women, serious steps have to be taken. This is the only
way miss-use of antibiotics can be minimized
Recommendation
Practice
·
Prevent
the supply of medicine without prescription.
·
Health
and knowledge about the consequences of self-medicating.
·
In
our local environment, a reevaluation of the purpose and scope of self-medication
is given.
·
The
safe use of antibiotics needs tighter regulation over the marketing of
antibiotic agents and helping to encourage them.
Policy
·
The government should
enforce a strict rule regarding misleading pharmaceutical advertising.
·
The government should
make policies regarding work together making healthcare facilities easily
available.
·
The government should
take serious actions towards making policies to prevent the growing trends of
self-medication of antibiotics.
Future Research
This study has also
opened a gateway for future research
·
Future research should
be on resistance developed due to self-medication of antibiotic and other harms
related to self-medication of antibiotics.
·
Further studies are
essential to evaluate the impacts of self-medication of antibiotics on the
health of students
·
It would also be
informative to know the factors associated with the self-medication of
antibiotics.
·
Further research may
also focus on the influence of family on the self-medication of antibiotics.
·
Further research may
also focus on the economic factors that are associated with the self-medication
of antibiotics.
·
Developing a
sustainable prevention program is important to reduce antibiotic mental
perceptions and raise public awareness of the possibility of improper
application of antibiotics.
Conclusion
From
the study, it can be concluded that the trend of miss-use of antibiotics are
very high in both medical and non-medical students and necessary steps, as
mentioned above, should be taken to prevent the accelerated antibiotics
resistance just due to lack of information.
Conflict of
interest
The
authors declared absence of any conflict of interest.
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Ruiz, M. E. (2010).
Risks of self-medication practices. Current
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